Literature and its different period

Literature is a written work considered to be an art form as long as it shows creative or artistic merit. It is usually made up of written words, even though those words were first transmitted orally. It may take on different forms such as poetry, drama and prose ; of course these categories have sub-types for instance sonnets, novels, dramas, fables, autobiographies, science fiction, etc. They often share common components : characters, setting, plot, themes, narrative point of view, figurative language, etc.

Now we may wonder what the purpose of literature is. As an art it has always been crucial to society, it allows us to learn about new ideas and concerns through the experience of fictional or real characters. Therefore it also reflects our cultural values and historical landmarks. More generally, literature helps us to understand each other and open up to the world.

Geoffrey Chaucer (born in the 14^th century) is referred to as the Father of English literature. From that time indeed, literature started to be written thanks to the Gutenberg’s printing press (1440), and then we can notice an evolution in its genre through the centuries.

The first period corresponds to the Renaissance which covers the Elizabethan age. Sir Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey brought the love-poetry and the sonnet to English literature. During that period its dominant forms were the poem and the drama. William Shakespeare best illustrated that trend; and among the several varieties of poetry to be found in sixteenth century England were the lyric, the elegy, the tragedy, and the pastoral.

Then came the Enlightenment during which three concepts were developed : the use of reason, the scientific method and progress ; it aimed at creating better societies and people. In literature it was marked by the metaphysical poets (Donne, Bunyan, Milton). During the Restoration, poetry was still the most popular form of literature yet it saw the beginning of fiction which was to develop later. Sentimentalism began as a fashion in both prose and poetry fiction in the 18^th century. Romanticism was born with the help of a group of poets (Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Shelley, Byron) and then the novel developed as a new genre which became more accessible thanks to serialisation in periodicals. Realism through detailed description became an asset of the Victorian age (Dickens, Hardy, Eliot). Finally, modernism started at the dawn of the twentieth-century.

A plot : une intrigue
A landmark : un repère
A trend : une tendance
The Enlightenment : le siècle des Lumières
The Restoration : la Restauration anglaise (XVII^e siècle)
An asset : un atout
At the dawn of : à l’aube de

The modern age succeeded to the Victorian age and it is commonly agreed that modernist works were published as early as 1880’s until around 1945. The following period is the contemporary (or postmodernist) period which goes up to now and it includes any work of literature published in the period!

We may wonder why such changes occurred and how literature evolved through these years. This last century was indeed a time of profound changes, life was disrupted by industrialisation, then wars (WWI and WWII), injustices and more recently global communication which made the world a smaller place. Writers illustrated this new world in a great variety of ways.

Modernist literature focuses on the individual and its ability to adapt to the changing world. It features characters who sometimes triumph over adversities but more often fail. Moreover life is seen as a challenge and the characters (no longer heroes) must accept the circumstances and persevere to fulfil their dreams.

The contemporary period  literature denounces racism, discrimination, the absurdity and horror of wars wherever they take place. It is based on human diversity, character and emotion. It questions our spirituality, due to the historical events some end up to believe that there is no God and that life is meaningless. It also encourages the quest for identity and it becomes more self-centered. Its tone is often ironic and full of cynicism as it reflects a society's political, social and personal opinions thanks to realistic characters.

Through their works, writers show us societal strengths and weaknesses so that we don’t forget the lessons we should learn and questions we should ask ourselves. They have always been inspired by real-life themes to deliver us their messages and these events in history shaped the writing of each period. This is why literature evolves along the centuries.

Disrupted : bouleversé
To feature : présenter
Strength : la force

In an attempt to define a novel, we may say that it is a fictitious prose narrative dealing with the life of ordinary people; its length is variable and it addresses common people. It appeared at the beginning of the 18^th century, and it was developed at a time when the industrial revolution created a desire to read books related to people’s everyday experiences.

It replaced poetry and drama which had been fashionable until then, furthermore it is important to highlight that the novel was intended for ordinary people as evidenced by some famous novels’ titles such as Joseph Andrews or Tom Jones. Indeed, it developed as a piece of prose fiction that introduces us to real life characters. It clearly showed a growing awareness for the rights of the people in a period of social changes.

The rise of the novel was also encouraged thanks to the innovations in printing and the magazine The Spectator (the oldest weekly magazine in the world since 1828) which helped discover new novels and authors. It marks the origin of social and domestic novels. The precursors of the novel were Daniel Defoe (Robinson Crusoe in 1719), John Bunyan (The Pilgrim’s Progress in 1678) and Jonathan Swift (Gulliver’s travels in 1726). They dealt with realism, romance, morality and adventure. Later on, some other writers were considered the “Four Wheels of the novel”, in other words, their founders; they were Tobias Smollett (The Adventures Of Roderick Random in 1748), Laurence Sterne (The Life And Opinions Of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman in 1759), Samuel Richardson (Pamela, Or Virtue Rewarded in 1740) and Henry Fielding (Tom Jones in 1749).

Nowadays the novel is seen as a considerable art form and the language is a great part of it. Its genre has somewhat evolved throughout the centuries; the narrative techniques are used in different ways and produce various effects. Furthermore, it is a source of entertainment as well as information considering emotions and human behaviour to quote only a few examples. In the 20^th century the novel has inspired the cinema: many novels have been adapted more or less successfully.

To highlight : mettre l’accent sur
Awareness : conscience
A romance : une histoire d’amour, un roman d’amour
The founders : les fondateurs
Entertainment : divertissement
A behaviour : un comportement

The 16^th century corresponds to the development of poetry since the reign of Elizabeth I marked a new interest for poetry and the arts. Thus, one of the main themes was the courtly world which was idealised, as in EDMUND SPENSER’s The Faerie Queene, a praise to the Queen. In Shepheardes Calender, Spenser introduces a classical pastoral aimed at an aristocratic audience.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (1564 – 1616) introduced significant changes to Petrarch’s sonnet and he was prolific as he wrote a collection of 154 sonnets dealing with love, beauty, the passing of time and mortality.

JOHN DONNE (1572 – 1631) was representative of the metaphysical poets using literary devices such as the paradox and the oxymoron to express his fears and anxieties to speak of a world shaken by modern discoveries of geography and science.

JOHN MILTON (1608 – 1674), studied to become a clergyman but he began early to read and write poetry in Latin, Italian and English. In 1637 he composed Lycidas, a great pastoral elegy expressing his Christian faith. His most celebrated work, the epic entitled Paradise Lost was published in 1667, describing the revolt of Satan against God. It was followed by Paradise regained, a more hopeful view of life.

As far as the romantic poets are concerned, we shall retain several names among which are WILLIAM BLAKE (1757 – 1827); his poetry was marked with mysticism and emotions through lofty imagination as he described the world around him.

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (1770 – 1850) had a strong affinity with nature, he looked for solace in the grandeur and beauty of his environment. In his poems, he illustrated the mystic relations between man and nature.

S. T. COLERIDGE (1772 – 1834) was a key figure in the Romantic Movement, he wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan; he was addicted to opium.

LORD BYRON (1782 – 1824): his characters were often rebellious and non conformist. He wrote Don Juan (an epic) and Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (a lengthy narrative poem). In the latter, the main character, who devotes his life to pleasure, decides to go on a pilgrimage to foreign countries.

P. B. SHELLEY (1792 – 1822) was a gifted poet who used his skills to defend causes. His desire for social and political reform is often the main theme of his numerous pamphlets.

A praise : un éloge
Device : technique
Shaken : bouleversé
Faith : la foi
Lofty : noble
Solace : réconfort
A pilgrimage : un pèlerinage
Gifted : talentueux

Robert Frost wrote: “Poetry is when an emotion has found its thought and the thought has found words”. In the 20^th century, poetry changed considerably; it was influenced by the global changes in literature. It is reflective of its age, it is concerned by the problems of the average man and the lower classes of society, in politics, in psychology. It is rather intellectual because it originates in the mind of the poet and it addresses the reader. Poetry follows the trends of literature so that their periods correspond; modernism was followed by postmodernism or the contemporary era.

To begin with, the modernists tended to use free verse or prose and to favor intellect over emotion as a reaction to romanticism (of the previous era). Their poetry is often marked by diction and rhythm yet it is created thanks to non-metrical means. They took the liberty of varying the form of poetry to suit their topic. The new trend consisted in trying to find new forms of expression through diverse experimentations, the use of a new language and new methods of expression, the preference for suggestion or ambiguity of ideas. It is agreed that the most striking aspect in the 20^th century poetry was the irregularity of form and style which differed from one poet to another.

Post-modern poetry reinforces the role of the poet and the role of the reader as the latter knows and can associate with the language. They are let to interpret the poem with the help of imagery. Moreover the poem is seen as a cultural artifact. Therefore we may say that modern poetry is seen as a private art form which contains the story of individual poets. They convey their own point of view influenced by the political and social context. After World War II, poets did not have the same hope and enthusiasm as before; therefore post-modernist poets showed a sense of helplessness and tiredness accompanied by a doubt about the existence of God.

In the contemporary era, which is often associated with the preceding period because there is no clear limit between both, we observe a move back towards traditional forms and an ever greater freedom of expression in the form and the content.

A trend : une tendance
Free verse : vers libre
Previous : précédent
Striking : frappant
An artifact : un objet ancien
To convey : transmettre
Helplessness : impuissance